Christmas services the duke and Duchess of Cambridge and nearly all of the royals -- but no Prince George, alas! Per annual tradition, Kate Middleton and Prince William were on hand at St. Mary Madgalene Church, the church on Queen Elizabeth's Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, England, for the late-morning Christmas services. Wearing a tartan Alexander McQueen coat and Gina Foster hat, Middleton, 31, joined royal in-laws Queen Elizabeth, Prince Phillip, a still-bearded Prince Harry, Prince Charles and Camilla, Princesses Beatrice and Eugenie,Prince Andrew, pregnant Zara Phillips and husband Mike Tindall, Prince Edward and wife Sophie (with their daughter, Lady Louise) and other royals in the procession. (Only the youngest royals, including 5-month-old Prince George, stayed behind at the estate.) About 3,000 royal watchers had gathered outside the church since 4 a.m. Christmas morning, and speakers were set up outside the building playing Christmas music.
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Inside the church, the service was conducted by Jonathan Riviere, the rector of Sandringham, and included a rendition of "Christians, Awake" and "Once in ROyal David's City." After the service, Middleton and the Queen greeted well-wishers outside the Church -- and the Duchess dished to a group of women about Prince George's morning opening presents.
PHOTOS: Meet Prince George!
Cicely Howard, 75, gabbed with the Duchess, and told reporters: "Kate told me he was having a lovely day but was more interested in the wrapping paper than the presents."
William, meanwhile, told the crowd: "We've had a good morning with George and I can't wait until next year when he's bigger."
Charles Darwin described him as "the greatest scientific traveler who ever lived." He is widely respected as one of the founders of modern geography. Alexander von Humboldt's travels, experiments, and knowledge transformed western science in the nineteenth century.
Alexander von Humboldt was born in Berlin, Germany in 1769. His father, who was an army officer, died when he was nine years old so he and his older brother Wilhelm were raised by their cold and distant mother. Tutors provided their early education which was grounded in languages and mathematics.
Once he was old enough, Alexander began to study at the Freiberg Academy of Mines under the famous geologist A.G. Werner. Von Humboldt met George Forester, Captain James Cook's scientific illustrator from his second voyage, and they hiked around Europe. In 1792, at the age of 22, von Humboldt began a job as a government mines inspector in Franconia, Prussia.
When he was 27, Alexander's mother died, leaving him as substantial income from the estate. The following year, he left government service and began to plan travels with Aime Bonpland, a botanist. The pair went to Madrid and obtained special permission and passports from King Charles II to explore South America.
Once they arrived in South America, Alexander von Humboldt and Bonpland studied the flora, fauna, and topography of the continent. In 1800 von Humboldt mapped over 1700 miles of the Orinco River. This was followed by a trip to the Andes and a climb of Mt. Chimborazo (in modern Ecuador), then believed to be the tallest mountain in the world. They didn't make it to the top due to a wall-like cliff but they did climb to over 18,000 feet in elevation. While on the west coast of South America, von Humboldt measured and discovered the Peruvian Current, which, over the objections of von Humboldt himself, is also known as the Humboldt Current. In 1803 they explored Mexico. Alexander von Humboldt was offered a position in the Mexican cabinet but he refused.
The pair were persuaded to visit Washington, D.C. by an American counselor and they did so. They stayed in Washington for three weeks and von Humboldt had many meetings with Thomas Jefferson and the two became good friends.
Von Humboldt sailed to Paris in 1804 and wrote thirty volumes about his field studies. During his expeditions in the Americas and Europe, he recorded and reported on magnetic declination. He stayed in France for 23 years and met with many other intellectuals on a regular basis.
Von Humboldt's fortunes were ultimately exhausted because of his travels and self-publishing of his reports. In 1827, he returned to Berlin where he obtained a steady income by becoming the King of Prussia's advisor. Von Humboldt was later invited to Russia by the tsar and after exploring the nation and describing discoveries such as permafrost, he recommended that Russia establish weather observatories across the country. The stations were established in 1835 and von Humboldt was able to use the data to develop the principle of continentality, that the interiors of continents have more extreme climates due to a lack of moderating influence from the ocean. He also developed the first isotherm map, containing lines of equal average temperatures.
From 1827 to 1828, Alexander von Humboldt gave public lectures in Berlin. The lectures were so popular that new assembly halls had to be found due to the demand. As von Humboldt got older, he decided to write everything known about the earth. He called his work Kosmos and the first volume was published in 1845, when he was 76 years old. Kosmos was well written and well received. The first volume, a general overview of the universe, sold out in two months and was promptly translated into many languages. Other volumes focused on such topics as human's effort to describe the earth, astronomy, and earth and human interaction. Humboldt died in 1859 and the fifth and final volume was published in 1862, based on his notes for the work.
Marco Polo Marco Polo, merchant and traveler, was born in Venice in 1254. In 1269, when Mark was 15 years old, they returned to Venice his father Niccolò and his uncle Matteo, left for the East several years ago. They had pledged to start early to China, where the emperor of China Kublai Khan was waiting for them with a hundred wise Westerners that the Pope would have to send. Since the new Pontiff was slow to be elected after two years of waiting, in 1271, the brothers and the young Marco Polo, now seventeen, decided to go to the East.
After an odyssey lasting two years with after going through Palestine, Persia, Central Asia, in 1274, came to Khanbalik (today's Beijing), where they were received with great kindness. Mark was at the court of Kublai Khan for 17 years, carrying out delicate missions and important positions in various regions of the empire: Tibet, Burma and Indochina. For three years he held the administration of Yangzhou city and got to know very well the life and customs of the local people. Mark speaks of this period in detail, describing a large number of locations and events in the history of the empire of China at that time, customs and beliefs, palaces and banquets, princes and peoples.
In 1292 the Pole took the opportunity of a naval expedition to Persia to return home.Drive along the coasts of Southeast Asia, crossed the Straits of Malacca, arrived in India and from there to Persia and then finally they returned to Venice (1295) through the Black Sea and Constantinople. After his return to Venice took part in the naval battle between Venice and Genoa in the island of Korcula, on the Dalmatian coast, where he was taken prisoner by the Genoese September 7, 1298. In prison he met Rustichello from Pisa, which he dictated his memoirs that, transcribed in French, were published under the title Livre des merveilles du monde (The Book of the Wonders of the World). The work, which was translated into several languages and was known in Italy under the title Il Milione (from Emilione, an epithet of the Polo family), for a long time remained the only source of news on East Asia. Released from prison in 1299 and returned to his Venice, where he died in 1324 at age 70. He was buried in San Lorenzo. Of him the German geographer Alexander von Humboldt wrote that it was "the greatest explorer of all time Earth and all countries."
VICTOR SPIRESAU (pictured, on the right, at Luton airport) had the strange honour of being the first Romanian immigrant to land in Britain on January 1st, the day restrictions on migrant labour from Romania and Bulgaria were relaxed. Citizens of those countries are now allowed to come and work in Britain on the same basis as citizens of other EU countries. Mr Spiresau, who works in construction, said he did not want to “rob” Britain, just make enough money to go home with a nest-egg for his family.
The question haunting Britain’s increasingly agitated debate about immigration is whether characters like Mr Spiresau will define the political narrative of immigration in 2014—or whether a new tranche of arrivals from poorer parts of the old eastern bloc will end up as a drain on the welfare system and public services.
The prime minister, David Cameron, has been under pressure from his Conservative party and beyond to clamp down on welfare entitlements for these newcomers, and has pledged to lengthen the amount of time they must wait before they are able to make a claim on state funds. Statistics suggest that this move may be more sound and fury than practical necessity, though. Just under 2% of people who have arrived in Britain from EU countries since 2010 have claimed unemployment benefit, according to the Labour Force Survey.
Indeed, far from draining the welfare state, the new migrants are likely to boost British coffers. Several recent reports have concluded that migrants pay more in taxes than they took out in welfare payments, because they are mainly young and keen to find work.
Yet Britain does suffer from an anomaly in its welfare set-up, which is likely to trouble Mr Cameron in his political battle with UKIP (an anti-immigration party), his own party’s right-wing and public opinion. Entitlements to claim basic benefits in Britain are relatively generous to newcomers because the social security system is based on means-testing, rather than the contributory principles common in other European countries, which take into account whether a claimant has previously worked and paid into the system.
More inconsistencies arise in practice. Italy, for example, does not offer a “safety net” of benefits that would enable newcomers to claim quickly. In fact, cumbersome bureaucracies and scant entitlements to housing assistance usually deter migrants from claiming very much at all. Spain also curtails access to benefits for those who have not worked unless they can prove extreme hardship. And few Britons would hope to get much out of the Romanian and Bulgarian social security systems, which are poorly administered and frankly impoverished.
Alas for Mr Cameron, changing entitlements is complicated and likely to put him on a collision course with the European Commission and the European Court of Justice. One approach mooted by Open Europe, a think-tank, would be for the British government to garner support for the right to vary welfare payments for newly arrived immigrants. Germany and the Netherlands have signalled sympathy on this point, though the make-up of a new grand coalition in Berlin may not help the case for reform.
In truth, though, Britain’s welfare system, designed for an era of much less labour mobility, is unlikely to be greatly strained by a new wave of incomers. But the lack of reciprocity between its set-up and that of other European countries is a reasonable concern, even if the amount of money at stake is modest. Mr Cameron must therefore hope that the majority of migrants who choose Britain as their destination in 2014 are as intent on working as Mr Spiresau.
Da Gama was a Portuguese explorer and navigator, and the first person to sail directly from Europe to India.
Vasco da Gama was born in about 1460 into a noble family. Little is known of his early life. In 1497, he was appointed to command an expedition equipped by the Portuguese government, whose intention was to find a maritime route to the East.
Setting off in July 1497, da Gama's expedition took advantage of the prevailing winds by sailing south down the coast of Africa, then veering far out into the Atlantic and swinging back in an arc to arrive off the southern African coast. This established a route still followed by sailing vessels. The expedition then rounded the Cape of Good and, after sailing up the coast of east Africa, took on an Arab navigator who helped them reach the Indian coast, at Calicut (now Kozhikode) in May 1498. This voyage launched the all-water route from Europe to Asia.
Da Gama returned to Portugal. The king immediately dispatched another expedition to secure a trading post at Calicut. After hearing of the massacre of all those at the trading post, da Gama sailed for India again in 1502 attacking Arab Muslim ships he met on the way. He forced the ruler of Calicut to make peace and, on his return voyage along the east African coast established Portuguese trading posts in what is now Mozambique.
Back in Portugal, da Gama was granted further privileges and revenues and continued to advise the king on Indian matters. After 20 years at home, in 1524, he was nominated as Portuguese viceroy in India and sent to deal with the mounting corruption among Portuguese authorities there. Arriving in Cochin, he fell ill and died on 24 December 1524. In 1539, his body was taken back to Portugal for burial.Following da Gama's completion of King John II's orders, in 1495, King Manuel took the throne, and the country revived its earlier mission to find a direct trade route to India. By this time, Portugal had established itself as one of the most powerful maritime countries in Europe.
Much of that was due to Henry the Navigator, who, at his base in the southern region of the country, had brought together a team of knowledgeable mapmakers, geographers and navigators. He dispatched ships to explore the western coast of Africa to expand Portugal's trade influence. He also believed that he could find and form an alliance with Prester John, who ruled over a Christian empire somewhere in Africa. Henry the Navigator never did locate Prester John, but his impact on Portuguese trade along Africa's east coast during his 40 years of explorative work was undeniable. Still, for all his work, the southern portion of Africa—what lay east—remained shrouded in mystery.
Washington was elected President as the unanimous choice of the electors in 1788, and he served two terms in office. He oversaw the creation of a strong, well-financed national government that maintained neutrality in the wars raging in Europe, suppressed rebellion, and won acceptance among Americans of all types. His leadership style established many forms and rituals of government that have been used since, such as using a cabinet system and delivering an inaugural address. Further, the peaceful transition from his presidency to the presidency of John Adams established a tradition that continues into the 21st century. Washington was hailed as "father of his country" even during his lifetime
Washington was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia; his wealthy planter family owned tobacco plantations and slaves. After both his father and older brother died when he was young, Washington became personally and professionally attached to the powerful who promoted his career as a surveyor and soldier. Washington quickly became a senior officer in the colonial forces during the first stages of the French and Indian War. Chosen by the Second Continental Congress in 1775 to be commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, Washington managed to force the British out of Boston in 1776, but was defeated and almost captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the dead of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey and restored momentum to the Patriot cause.
Because of his strategy, Revolutionary forces captured two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. Historians laud Washington for his selection and supervision of his generals, encouragement of morale and ability to hold together the army, coordination with the state governors and state militia units, relations with Congress and attention to supplies, logistics, and training. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies. After victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as Commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism.
Washington proclaimed the United States neutral in the wars raging in Europe after 1793. He avoided war with Great Britain and guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795, despite intense opposition from the Jeffersonians. Although he never officially joined the Federalist Party, he supported its programs. Washington's Farewell Address was an influential primer on republican virtue and a warning against partisanship, sectionalism, and involvement in foreign wars. He retired from the presidency in 1797 and returned to his home, Mount Vernon, and his domestic life where he managed a variety of enterprises. He freed all his slaves by his final will.
Washington had a vision of a great and powerful nation that would be built on republican lines using federal power. He sought to use the national government to preserve liberty, improve infrastructure, open the western lands, promote erce, found a permanent capital, reduce regional tensions and promote a spirit of American nationalism At his death, Washington was eulogized as "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen" by Henrcommy Lee
The Federalists made him the symbol of their party but for many years, the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence and delayed building theWashington Monument. As the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire in world history, Washington became an international icon for liberation and nationalism, especially in France and Latin America.He is consistently ranked among the top three presidents of the United States, according to polls of both scholars and the general public.
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau-am-Inn on the Austrian-German border. His father was a customs official. Hitler left school at 16 with no qualifications and struggled to make a living as a painter in Vienna. This was where many of his extreme political and racial ideas originated.
In 1913, he moved to Munich and, on the outbreak of World War One, enlisted in the German army, where he was wounded and decorated. In 1919, he joined the fascist German Workers' Party (DAP). He played to the resentments of right-wingers, promising extremist 'remedies' to Germany's post-war problems which he and many others blamed on Jews and Bolsheviks. By 1921 he was the unquestioned leader of what was now the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP or Nazi Party).
In 1923, Hitler attempted an unsuccessful armed uprising in Munich and was imprisoned for nine months, during which time he dictated his book 'Mein Kampf' outlining his political ideology. On his release he began to rebuild the Nazi Party and used new techniques of mass communication, backed up with violence, to get his message across. Against a background of economic depression and political turmoil, the Nazis grew stronger and in the 1932 elections became the largest party in the German parliament. In January 1933, Hitler became chancellor of a coalition government. He quickly took dictatorial powers and began to institute anti-Jewish laws. He also began the process of German militarisation and territorial expansion that would eventually lead to World War Two. He allied with Italy and later Japan to create the Axis.
Hitler's invasion of Poland in September 1939 began World War Two. After military successes in Denmark, Norway and Western Europe, but after failing to subdue Britain in 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union. The Jewish populations of the countries conquered by the Nazis were rounded up and killed. Millions of others whom the Nazis considered racially inferior were also killed or worked to death. In December 1941, Hitler declared war on the United States. The war on the eastern front drained Germany's resources and in June 1944, the British and Americans landed in France. With Soviet troops poised to take the German capital, Hitler committed suicide in his bunker in Berlin on 30 April 1945.
Da Gama was a Portuguese explorer and navigator, and the first person to sail directly from Europe to India.